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E-Journal N1(65)2025

"PROBLEMS of the REGIONAL ENERGETICS (https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65)"

CONTENTS

1	The Short-Term Wind Power Forecasting by Utilizing Machine Learning and Hybrid Deep Learning Frameworks Authors: School of Energy & Clean Technology, NICMAR University of Construction Studies, Hyderabad, India
	Abstract: Wind power has become more popular due to an increase in energy demand and the rapid decline in conventional fossil fuels. This paper addresses the rising demand for accurate short-term wind power forecasting, which is critical for minimizing the impacts on grid operations and reducing associated costs. The objective is to develop an innovative deep learning (DL) model that integrates a convolutional neural network (CNN) with a gated recurrent unit (GRU) to enhance forecasting precision for day-ahead applications. In pursuit of these objectives, the CNN GRU model was rigorously tested and compared against three additional models: CNN with bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM), extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), and random forest (RF). Key performance metrics—namely, mean absolute error (MAE), mean squared error (MSE), root mean squared error (RMSE), and the coefficient of determination (R²)—were employed to assess the efficacy of each model. Statistical validation was also performed using the Diebold-Mariano test to establish significant differences in performance. The most important results reveal that the CNN GRU model outperformed the other models, achieving a MAE of 0.2104 MW, an MSE of 0.1028 MW, an RMSE of 0.3206 MW, and an R² of 0.9768. These findings underscore the model's superior accuracy and reliability in the realm of short-term wind power forecasting. The significance of this research resides in its demonstration of the CNN GRU model as an effective and practical instrument for renewable energy forecasting.
	Keywords: wind power, forecasting, deep learning, renewable energy, performance metrics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.01
2	Load Forecasting in Electrical Grids: Analysis of Methods and their Trends Authors: Kyryk V.V., Shatalov Y.O. National Technical University of Ukraine "Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute" Kyiv, Ukraine
	Abstract: Main objective of this study is to analyze the progression of load forecasting methodologies for electrical grids, with a focus on identifying trends in performance metrics such as Mean Abso-lute Percentage Error (MAPE) over time. This analysis evaluates various forecasting approaches, including statistical methods, artificial intelligence, fuzzy logic, ensemble methods, and hybrid systems, to understand their evolution and current state. To achieve the stated goals, the system-atic review of scientific studies and articles that have the necessary metrics was conducted. From them, it was determined which models were used and what forecasting errors corresponded to them. Also, the publications reviewed within this study were distributed over time to take into account the dynamics of changes in the results. The most important results are the obtained graphs of the dynamics of forecast of error changes for different models by years, as well as the possible ranges of variation of this error. The results show that, although increasingly complex models are being developed, their accuracy gain remains inconsistent in different application contexts, provided that a single-type architecture is used. Hybrid models demonstrate a significant increase in accuracy, and, therefore, superiority over a single-type architecture. The significance of the obtained results is in the clear illustration of the development of the accuracy of forecasting models. They allow us to determine the optimal vector of evolution of subsequent studies, namely, what type of model should be used to forecast the grid load. This study proves the prospects of using hybrid methods in the area under consideration as well.
	Keywords: load forecasting, electrical grids, analysis, fuzzy systems, neural networks, hybrid models, performance metrics, artificial intelligence, machine learning. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.02
3	Effect on the Process of Biomethanogenesis of Pre-Treatment of Wheat Straw by the High Intensity High-Frequency Electromagnetic Field Authors: Zablodsky N.1, Klendiy P. 2, Dudar O.3 1National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine 2 Separated subdivision "Berezhany Agrotechnical Institute" National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine, Berezhany, Ukraine 3Separated structural subdivision “Berezhany professional college of National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine” Berezhany, Ukraine
	Abstract: The purpose of the researches is the experimental determination of the effect of pre-treatment with the high-frequency electromagnetic field of high intensity on the appearance of deformations and structural rearrangements in the cells of wheat straw and on the intensity of biogas output.The set goal is achieved by the way of solving the following issues: obtaining chopped straw when it is grinding on a laboratory grinder to the fraction with average sizes of 5.2 mm x 1.5 mm and soaking in tap water for 15 minutes; measurement of distribution of the specific power of the electromagnetic field in the area where the samples of crushed wheat straw are located; comparison of images of the structure of straw under a light microscope for samples after influence by the high-frequency electromagnetic field of high intensity and control samples that were not exposed to such influence; carrying out fermentation experiments and researches of the process of biogas output within 20 days of a mixture of straw and inoculum for options with pre-treatment of wheat straw by the electromagnetic field of a Tesla’s transformer and without treatment by field. The most important results of the researches are: experimental evidence of the effectiveness of the method of pre-treatment of wheat straw by the high-frequency electromagnetic field of high intensity during the production of biogas. The significance of the obtained results is that the proposed approach to the formation of biogas technology with using the pre-treatment of wheat straw by the high-frequency electromagnetic field of high intensity ensures the intensification of biogas output.
	Keywords: anaerobic fermentation, biogas, magnetic field water substrates, biomass wastes, lignin, electric field strength. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.03
4	Management of Energy Exchange Process on Metro Rolling Stock with On-Board Capacitive Energy Storage Authors: Sulym A.O.1, Khozia P.O.1, Fomin O.V.2, Bahrov O.M.1 1State Enterprise “Ukrainian Scientific Railway Car Building Research Institute” Kremenchuk, Ukraine 2State University of Infrastructure and Technologies Kyiv, Ukraine
	Abstract: The object of this paper is to develop and synthesize a system for managing energy exchange processes between the overhead line, electric drive of metro vehicles, braking resistor and capacitive energy storage devices. To achieve this goal, the following tasks must be completed. The first task is to create a mathematical model and to define the requirements to control system for energy exchange processes currently being developed for metro rolling stock with capacitive energy storage devices. The second task is to develop a block diagram of a control unit for ener-gy exchange processes. The third task is to synthesize a control system for energy exchange pro-cesses on metro rolling stock with capacitive energy storage devices and an algorithm for its operation. The fourth task is to check the functioning of the synthesized control system and its op-erating algorithm. The most significant result of the work is the improvement of the technical characteristics of the rolling stock, higher passenger safety on metro transit, minimization of electricity consumption from the overhead line by increasing the use of regenerative braking energy generated by the electric drive of the train, voltage compensation in the overhead line, train operation capability in emergencies due to the implementation of the developed control system. The significance of the results obtained is a synthesis of an adaptive control system that makes it possible to monitor and manage the energy exchange processes on metro rolling stock with capacitive energy storage devices, considering storage devices charging rate, the train-driving mode and the nature of the energy processes.
	Keywords: capacitive energy storage, metro, rolling stock, energy exchange processes, control system, braking resistor, electric drive. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.04
5	Boiling of Subcooled Liquid in a Flat Minichannel with a Graphene Coating Authors: Kochkin D.Yu.1, Arkhipov V.E.1, Korepanova E.M.2, Zaitsev D.V.1 1Kutateladze Institute of Thermophysics Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russian federation 2Novosibirsk State Technical University, Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
	Abstract: Boiling occurs in many energy technologies, including thermal stabilization systems, where heat is removed from the wall due to the latent heat of vaporization of the coolant. Applying coatings to the heat-generating surface is one of the ways to enhance heat transfer during boiling. Carbon nanocoatings, such as graphene, are among the promising coatings for improving heat transfer. The main objective of the study is to determine the effect of graphene coating on heat transfer and the dynamics of vapor bubbles during water boiling in a flat, smooth minichannel. To achieve this goal, a minichannel with a height of 1.15 mm and a width of 10 mm was used. Boil-ing was implemented on the end of a copper sample with a cross section of 10 × 10 mm2, flush pressed into the lower wall of the channel.. To determine the effect of the graphene coating on the bubble dynamics and heat transfer during water boiling in a minichannel, graphene was me-chanically removed from the surface of copper samples in a number of experiments. The most important result is that the graphene coating provides a greater number of vaporization sites compared to the original copper without graphene, but does not have a significant effect on the heat transfer coefficient and boiling curves. It was also found that the graphene coating is unsta-ble on the copper surface and is almost completely destroyed during boiling for several tens of minutes. The significance of the obtained results lies in determining the stability of the graphene coating, as well as its influence on heat exchange during boiling of water in a minichannel.
	Keywords: heat transfer enhancement, boiling, minichannel, graphene, two-phase flow. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.05
6	Scheme for Processing Mainline Gas at Gas Distribution Stations Using Regenerative Heat Exchangers Authors: 1,2Baranov A.Yu., 1Kravchenko Yu.A., 1Kravchenko D.V., 1Baranov M.V. 1ITMO University 2Scientific and Production Enterprise «KRYON» Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
	Abstract: The article presents the results of a study on optimization of the natural gas purification and dry-ing process in the production of liquefied natural gas (LNG) at gas distribution stations (GDS). The aim of the work is to reduce energy costs at a small-scale natural gas liquefaction plant. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were solved: analysis of existing process flow charts for obtaining LNG at GDS and formulation of their advantages and disadvantages, description of a mathematical model of a recuperative heat exchanger. As part of the study, an analysis of small-scale LNG production technologies was carried out, which showed that the most attractive in terms of energy costs is obtaining liquefied gas in a throttle cycle, and their disadvantages asso-ciated with the organization of the processes of drying and cleaning natural gas before liquefac-tion are shown. The most important result of the study is the development of a process flow chart for processing main gas at GDS using recuperative heat exchangers. The significance of the results lies in reducing energy costs for the processes of gas preparation for liquefaction in the liquefied gas production unit at gas distribution stations. The paper describes a mathematical model of a recuperative heat exchanger developed for setting up a computational experiment to assess the efficiency of recuperative heat exchangers in a natural gas liquefaction cycle, as well as for modeling the processes occurring in recuperative heat exchangers of liquefied natural gas production plants.
	Keywords: liquefied natural gas, gas distribution stations, main gas, energy efficiency, gas preparation for liquefaction. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.06
7	Effect of Porous Coating on Heat Transfer in Minichannels with Intensive Localised Heating Authors: Pukhovoy M.V., Zaitsev D.V. Kutateladze Institute of Thermophysics of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences Novosibirsk, Russian Federation
	Abstract: The main objective of the work is to study the influence of the porous layer on the intensity of heat transfer during flow boiling in mini- and microchannels with localized heating from the wall side (heater size 3x3 mm2) with a channel width and length an order of magnitude larger. The following problems were solved to achieve these goals. A technology was created for forming various porous coatings on a heater based on Nickel powder with a characteristic grain size of about 60-100 μm. As a result, three different thin (150 μm scale) porous coatings were obtained: Nickel (100% Ni) and two bimetallic coatings containing copper or zinc powders (80% Ni + 20% Cu, 50% Ni + 50% Zn). Systematic studies of heat transfer during boiling with non-uniform heating in mini- and microchannels with a height of 0.55 to 2.0 mm with subcooling water were carried out. The experiments were carried out with intensive heating from the wall side, up to 1.6 kW/cm2. There are established facts that are important results. The values of heat transfer coefficients and critical heat flux on porous surfaces are significantly (up to 3 times) higher than for a smooth surface. The values of critical heat flux reached 1.2 kW/cm2, and the values of heat transfer coefficient reached 100 kW/(m2 K). The significance of the obtained results is that the features of localized heating are underestimated but are important in modern multi-chip electronic systems and promising power plants. This will allow achieving the required scale of heat exchange parameter values when developing highly efficient heat exchange systems for modern microelectronics and power engineering.
	Keywords: micro/mini channels, high heat flux, local heating, thin porous coating. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.07
8	Theoretical Foundations of Digital Content Integrity Expertise Authors: Bobok I.I.1, Kobozieva A.A.2 1Odesа Polytechnic National University 2Odesa National Maritime University Odesa, Ukraine
	Abstract: In the context of the rapid development of information technologies, their implementation in the process of functioning of critical infrastructure, in particular energy, of any state is extremely relevant. At the same time, the continuity and quality of functioning of any automated system in the digital space critically depends on ensuring the integrity of the information used. The effec-tiveness of digital content integrity expertise methods is determined by their theoretical founda-tions. Existing theoretical approaches do not allow obtaining a final solution to this problem. The aim of this work is to develop a general approach to the analysis of the state of information sys-tems, based on the theory of matrices, for its use in the examination of the integrity of digital content. The objective was achieved by investigating the perturbation properties of singular val-ues and singular vectors of the image (or video frame) matrix as a result of perturbation for orig-inal and non-original contents. The most important results of the work are: substantiation for non-original content of the destruction of the monotony of the trend of the function of depend-ence of the disturbance of the singular number on its number, which takes place for original content; substantiation of the fundamental possibility of estimating the magnitude of the perturb-ing effect. The significance of the obtained results lies in their subsequent use for the develop-ment of universal methods for examining the integrity of digital images, video, in particular ste-ganoanalytical methods, which make it possible not only to identify the fact of integrity viola-tion, but also to assess the magnitude of the perturbing effect, which is extremely important in steganoanalysis, where this value characterizes the throughput of a hidden communication channel.
	Keywords: general approach to analyzing the state of information systems, singular vector, singular number, digital content integrity expertise, steganoanalysis. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.08
9	Influence of Electrodes Configuration on Metallized Film Capacitor Performance Metrics Authors: Beliko V.O.1, Cheng Liu2, Kalmâkova S.I.1, Pecinikov A.V.1, Plotnikov A.P.1 11Petru cel Mare Universitatea Politehnică din Sankt Petersburg, 1St. Petersburg, Federația Rusă 2Universitatea Xi’an Jiaotong, Xi’an, China
	Abstract: The aim of the study is to reveal the influence of the electrode configuration of metallized film capacitors on their characteristics and performance under conditions typical of power electron-ics. Presently used electrodes configurations are summarized, their benefits and disadvantages are analyzed. We showed that currently used metallized film capacitors electrodes configura-tions, ensuring reliable self-heling, have too high equivalent resistivity. Authors propose to in-troduce a hybrid type of electrode for metallized film capacitors. We showed the influence of the capacitor electrodes on its performance under the conditions typical of power electronics and experimentally studied the effect of the electrode thickness on the breakdown strength. The breakdown strength of polymer films with various metallization thickness was determined using common dielectric testing methodology. We found out that the breakdown strength follows Weibull distribution and slightly depends on vacuum sputtered metal thickness, unlike previous studies results. The effects from the fracture of electrodes caused by electrical discharges occur-ring during self-healing of metallized film capacitors are demonstrated experimentally. It was established the prominent influence of electrical explosion and micro-arc destruction of metal-lized electrode on polymer film breakdown strength. The results of numerical and analytical cal-culations of equivalent electrode resistivity for various configurations are presented. Compara-tive calculations of the surface resistance and active area of segmented and hybrid electrodes showed the advantage of the latter. We experimentally established that at comparable process durations the deposited energy for the fracture of hybrid electrodes was less than for segmented ones.
	Keywords: metallized film capacitor, breakdown strength, electrode configuration, equivalent series resistance, self-healing, profile metallization, segmented metallization. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.9
10	Experimental Studies of Hydrogen Sulfide Adsorbents Based on Sludge from a TPP Water Treatment Plant Authors: Filimonova A.A., Vlasova A.Yu., Kamalieva R.F. Kazan State Power Engineering University Kazan, Russian Federation
	Abstract: The paper is devoted to the problem of purification of gaseous fuels used in thermal power plants. It is not uncommon for stations to use gaseous waste from petrochemical enterprises as an additive to the main fuel as part of a resource-saving policy. However, natural gas and gase-ous waste need to be pre-cleaned of sulfur compounds to reduce the operating load on equip-ment and reduce the negative impact on the environment. The purpose of this article is to devel-op and justify the choice of a sorption material with a high sulfur content and physical charac-teristics that meet the requirements of GOST. This goal is achieved through the implementation of the following tasks: analysis and selection of components of sorption materials based on TPP water treatment sludge, activation of waste from the plant's water treatment plant, preparation of complex compounds with different percentages of the main active substances, determination of the synergistic effect between the components of the composition. The most important results are the determination of the balance between an effective combination of components in a composition that provides a high sulfur content; the definition of a list of metal oxides that can increase the absorption capacity of sulfur compounds; the development of an adsorbent with a high sulfur content and acceptable physical characteristics. The significance of the results ob-tained lies in the fact that the proposed desulfurization method is not only economically feasi-ble, but also environmentally beneficial due to the reuse of station waste. The conducted re-search has made it possible to expand knowledge in the field of purification of gaseous fuels from sulfur compounds and identify effective adsorbent components that increase sulfur ca-pacity.
	Keywords: gaseous fuel of thermal power plants, petrochemical waste, purification from sulfur compounds, adsorbent, water treatment sludge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.10
11	Methods of Calculating Moisture Discharge Characteristics of Insulators Authors: Shevchenko S., Danylchenko D., Hanus R., Radohuz S., Tomashevskiy R., Makhonin M., Potryvai A. National Technical University «Kharkiv Polytechnic Institute» Kharkiv, Ukraine
	Abstract: The article discusses methods for calculating the moisture discharge voltage of insulators under various operating conditions (pollution, humidity, etc.) to identify patterns of environmental influence on operational characteristics, as well as to improve the reliability and safety of power grids. The main aim of the study is to compare two approaches to calculating the moisture discharge characteristics of insulators: the classical method based on the Tepler formula and an alternative approach that utilizes generalized parameters. These parameters can be easily obtained from the technical characteristics of insulators or design standards for automated calculations. To achieve this goal, the authors addressed several important tasks. First, a comprehensive analysis of the behavior of electrical discharges on the surface of insulators under various operating conditions, including standard and adverse environments, was conducted. Second, an automated tool was developed to quickly and accurately determine the values of moisture discharge voltage. Third, the proposed method was experimentally validated using the LK 70-110 insulator. The tests revealed a discharge voltage of 549 kV and an electric field intensity of 2.1 kV/cm, confirming the accuracy of the calculation method. The key findings of the study highlight the importance of considering factors such as the properties of insulator surfaces and the degree of contamination, especially in underground substations where humidity and pollution exhibit specific characteristics. The proposed approach proved effective both in standard and challenging operating conditions. The significance of the results lies in the creation of a tool that simplifies the calculation of moisture discharge characteristics of insulators.
	Keywords: moisture discharge voltage, insulators, calculating method, Tepler's formula, electrical discharges, automated calculator. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.11
12	The Fast and Accurate Method of Tuning of SISO Controllers Using Seven Performance Indexes Authors: 1Stopakevych A.О., 2Stopakevych О.A. 1 State University of Intelligent Technologies and Telecommunications 2 National Odesa Polytechnic University Odesa, Ukraine
	Abstract: The goal of the work is the development of an algorithm and corresponding software, which allows the execution of multi-criteria optimization of a control system with PI controller and FOPDT plant. We use the following seven performance indicators to find the optimal tunings: gain margin, phase margin, cutoff frequency, critical frequency, relative delay margin, relative overshoot, maximum control action magnitude. Optimization criteria can include constraints on any number of indicators. The goal of the work has been achieved by solving the following tasks. The first task is to create formulas and procedures for accurate calculation of performance indicators of control systems. The second task is to develop a procedure for the fastest possible simulation of a control system with the orientation on using a model with internal delays structure and a special solver for it. The third task is to develop an algorithm for fast calculation of performance indicators in the range of all possible rational tuning of the controller for a given FOPDT plant model. The fourth task is to develop a software application with a graphical interface in MATLAB language, which allows convenient optimization for an arbitrary rational FOPDT model. The most significant result was that the pointed-out performance indicators can be accurately calculated for all possible rational tunings of a PI controller with an arbitrary FOPDT model in a second. The significance of the results was that it allows to reduce an optimization procedure to a table search and to achieve any multi-term performance criteria. The effectiveness of the procedure has been demonstrated on a set of different FOPDT models. It is shown that there is no dependence in accuracy of calculation from model or controller coefficients.
	Keywords: control system, PI controller, FOPDT, delay, dead time, optimization, performance indicators, simulation speed, formulas, accuracy. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.12
13	Grid-Integrated Dual Wind Turbine System Using SEPIC Converter with Whale Optimized PI Controller Authors: 1Kishore R.D., 2Sravani K., 2Sai Kumar N.D., 2Preetham C.G., Bentu B.2 1Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Godavari Global University, Rajahmundry, India 2Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Godavari Institute of Engineering and Technology, Rajahmundry, India
	Abstract: Main objectives of the study are to progress a dual independent doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)-based wind energy conversion system (WECS) for stable and efficient power delivery to an AC microgrid while ensuring grid stability and compliance with power quality standards. In order to achieve the set goals, the following tasks were accomplished: integration of a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) rectifier for AC to DC conversion, implementation of a SEPIC converter for voltage boosting, tuning of proportional integral (PI) controller parameters using whale optimization algorithm (WOA) for dynamic DC voltage regulation, and design of a 3Φ Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) for efficient management of active and reactive power to the grid. The scientific novelty of the proposed work is the inclusion of dual independent DFIG system with SEPIC converters and optimized PI controllers. The most important results are the demonstration of consistent DC voltage stabilization, improved power quality under varying wind conditions, and an overall system efficiency of 97%, verified through MATLAB simulations. These attained outcomes are found to be more efficient when compared to other existing converters and optimized controllers thereby satisfying the objectives of meeting desired voltage demands of grid and achieving highly stabilized output power. The significance of obtained results is the establishment of an advanced DFIG-WECS-based wind energy system capable of enhancing grid performance, ensuring reliable integration of renewable energy, and maintaining power quality and stability in compliance with modern grid standards.
	Keywords: renewable energy source(RES), DFIG-WECS, SEPIC Converter, WOA-PI Controller, Grid system. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.13
14	Interleaved Landsman Converter with Class Topper Optimized PI Control in Sensorless BLDC Motor Drive for Electric Vehicle Authors: 1Suresh V., 1Kishore R.D., 2Jahnavi V.G., 1Manjula D., 2Lokesh M. 1Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Godavari Global University, Rajahmundry, India. 2Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Godavari Institute of Engineering and Technology, Rajahmundry, India.
	Abstract: The main objectives of the study are todevelop a brushless direct current (BLDC) motor drive system with enhanced efficiency, reliability, and cost-effectiveness for electric vehicle (EV) applications. The proposed system integrates an advanced interleaved Landsman converter and an optimized Proportional-Integral (PI) controller for efficient energy management and motor control. In order to achieve the set goals, the following tasks were accomplished: The scientific novelty of this work lies in the design of a novel interleaved Landsman converter along with Class Topper Optimization (CTO) algorithm. The converter is designed to optimize power conversion from photovoltaic (PV) sources to the energy required for the BLDC motor; the algorithm is implemented to hyper-tune the PI controller for precise and rapid response; a bidirectional converter was employed to manage the charging and discharging of the battery system, ensuring adequate power distribution during peak demands; and a single-phase voltage source inverter (VSI) was utilized for DC-AC conversion to drive the BLDC motor. The system was tested in MATLAB/Simulink to evaluate its performance. The most important results are the achievement of high voltage conversion efficiency of 97.42%, a minimized settling time of 0.1 seconds, and rapid convergence speed, which collectively demonstrate the system's ability to provide reliable and efficient operation for EV propulsion. The significance of obtained results is the potential to revolutionize EV motor drive systems by offering an innovative, highly efficient, and scalable solution. This system not only enhances energy utilization and motor performance but also supports the widespread adoption of sustainable EV technology.
	Keywords: electric vehicles, BLDC motor, interleaved Landsman converter, Class Topper optimization, voltage source inverter, PI controller. DOI: https://doi.org/10.52254/1857-0070.2025.1-65.14